F-35 Lightnig II Uncovered: Inside the $1 Trillion Stealth Fighter Dominating the Skies

Introduction and Overview

An F-35A Lightning II in flight. The fifth-generation F-35 is designed as a multi-role stealth fighter, intended to dominate both air-to-air and air-to-ground engagements.
The Lockheed Martin F-35 Lightning II is a family of single-seat, single-engine fifth-generation stealth fighters developed under the Joint Strike Fighter program en.wikipedia.org. It was conceived as a multirole platform equally adept at air superiority and precision strike missions, with advanced sensors enabling electronic warfare and intelligence, surveillance, and reconnaissance (ISR) roles en.wikipedia.org. The F-35 program began in the 1990s to replace aging aircraft like the F-16, F/A-18, and AV-8B Harrier II across U.S. and allied fleets en.wikipedia.org. In 2001, Lockheed’s X-35 design beat Boeing’s X-32 to win the JSF contract, leading to the F-35’s development as a coalition fighter funded by the U.S. and eight partner nations en.wikipedia.org.

The F-35 first flew in 2006 and has since become the largest and most ambitious defense procurement in history – estimated to cost around $1.7–2 trillion over its life cycle including R&D, production of 2,500+ jets, and decades of operations airandspaceforces.com. It entered service with the U.S. Marine Corps (F-35B) in 2015, the Air Force (F-35A) in 2016, and the Navy (F-35C) in 2019 en.wikipedia.org. As of 2025, over 1,170 F-35s have been delivered worldwide en.wikipedia.org, and the U.S. plans to buy 2,456 of them through 2044, forming the backbone of American tactical aviation for decades en.wikipedia.org. The F-35 is expected to remain in service through 2070, becoming a cornerstone of NATO and allied air power en.wikipedia.org. In short, the Lightning II is a state-of-the-art stealth fighterprogram unmatched in scale – but not without significant controversies over cost and complexity, which we will explore in this report.

Variants: F-35A, F-35B, and F-35C

F-35B short takeoff/vertical landing (STOVL) jets on the deck of HMS Queen Elizabeth. The F-35 family has three variants: the conventional F-35A, STOVL F-35B, and carrier-capable F-35C.
The F-35 comes in three primary variants, tailored to different service needs en.wikipedia.org:

• F-35A – A conventional takeoff and landing (CTOL) variant for traditional runways, used by the U.S. Air Force and most international partners. It is the lightest and most agile version (9 g maneuvering limit) and the only variant with an internal cannon (25mm GAU-22/A) en.wikipedia.org en.wikipedia.org. The F-35A’s refueling receptacle is boom-compatible for USAF tankers. This variant can carry about 18,250 lb of fuel internally, giving it an unrefueled range over 1,200 nautical miles (≈2,200 km) and a combat radius around 670 nmi on internal fuel en.wikipedia.org en.wikipedia.org. It’s designed as a multi-role replacement for F-16s and A-10s, capable of operating from standard air bases.
• F-35B – A short take-off and vertical landing (STOVL) variant developed for the U.S. Marine Corps and allies like the UK. The F-35B incorporates a shaft-driven lift fan and rotating rear nozzle that allow it to hover and land vertically on small decks en.wikipedia.org. This enables operations from amphibious assault ships and austere forward bases. The trade-off is a smaller internal fuel capacity (~13,500 lb), giving the B a shorter range (>900 nmi) and roughly 505 nmi combat radius en.wikipedia.org en.wikipedia.org. It also has a lower 7 g limit due to structural differences en.wikipedia.org. The F-35B lacks an internal gun; when needed, it carries a missionized gun pod under the fuselage. Despite these differences, it retains the F-35’s full sensor and weapons suite. The B-variant has been a game-changer for U.S. Marines and Britain’s Royal Navy, flying from ships like the USS Essex and HMS Queen Elizabeth to bring stealth airpower to sea defense.gov royalnavy.mod.uk.
• F-35C – The aircraft carrier variant for the U.S. Navy (also used by the US Marine Corps for carrier deployments). The F-35C is built for catapult launches and arrested landings (CATOBAR) on carrier decks en.wikipedia.org. It features a larger wingspan (43 ft vs 35 ft) with folding wingtips, more robust landing gear, and upgraded tailhook for carrier operations en.wikipedia.org en.wikipedia.org. The C carries the most internal fuel (nearly 19,750 lb), giving it the longest range (>1,200 nmi) and about 670 nmi combat radius similar to the F-35A en.wikipedia.org en.wikipedia.org. It sacrifices a bit of agility (7.5 g limit) in exchange for its heavier structure en.wikipedia.org. The Navy’s F-35C squadrons deploy on carriers alongside F/A-18 Super Hornets, extending the carrier air wing’s reach with stealth and advanced sensors. The Marine Corps has also integrated F-35Cs (land-based squadrons that can reinforce Navy air wings). The first carrier deployment of F-35Cs occurred in 2021, and in November 2024 Marine F-35Cs from USS Abraham Lincoln conducted their first combat strikesagainst targets in the Middle East, demonstrating the variant’s long-range strike capability from the sea marinecorpstimes.com marinecorpstimes.com.

Despite differences, all variants share about 70% common systems and can carry an identical array of sensors and weapons. This joint approach was intended to reduce costs and ease interoperability. Each F-35 variant gives its operators a cutting-edge stealth fighter, whether on air bases, small deck assault ships, or large aircraft carriers.

Technical Specifications and Capabilities

Stealth and Airframe Design: All F-35s feature a radar-evading shape and radar-absorbent materials that make them extremely difficult to detect on radar. The jet’s fuselage has chined edges and serrated panels to minimize radar cross-section, and it carries weapons internally to avoid radar reflections en.wikipedia.org en.wikipedia.org. The engine’s exhaust is shielded and mixed with cooler air to reduce infrared signature. While exact stealth levels are classified, the F-35 and F-22 are considered among the stealthiest fighters ever built (significantly less observable than Russia’s Su-57, for example) 19fortyfive.com 19fortyfive.com. The F-35’s single Pratt & Whitney F135 turbofan produces 43,000 lbs of thrust with afterburner, propelling the jet to a maximum speed around Mach 1.6 (~1,200 mph) af.mil. It is not as fast as the twin-engine F-22 (which can supercruise ~Mach 1.8 and tops over Mach 2) but is comparable in speed to peer fighters like China’s J-20 (Mach ~2) 19fortyfive.com 19fortyfive.com. The Lightning II’s service ceiling is about 50,000 feet af.mil. Its combat radius on internal fuel (~600–700 nmi for F-35A/C) allows it to strike targets far behind enemy lines without refueling en.wikipedia.org. Notably, the F-35’s sustainment and logistics system aims to maximize readiness: it was designed with an Autonomic Logistics Information System (ALIS) that monitors each aircraft’s health and assists maintainers with predictive diagnostics af.mil. (ALIS proved problematic in practice – more on that in “Controversies” – and is being replaced by a modernized system called ODIN to improve reliability airandspaceforces.com airandspaceforces.com.)

Avionics and Sensor Fusion: Perhaps the F-35’s greatest strength is its suite of sensors and the fusion of their data. It is often described as a “flying super-computer.” The F-35’s avionics were cutting-edge at introduction and continue to be upgraded. Key sensors include: the AN/APG-81 AESA radar, which provides high-resolution tracking of air and ground targets; the Electro-Optical Targeting System (EOTS), a built-in IR/TV sensor under the nose for targeting and bomb guidance; and the AN/AAQ-37 Distributed Aperture System (DAS), an array of six IR cameras covering 360° around the aircraft en.wikipedia.org en.wikipedia.org. The DAS allows the pilot to see all around the aircraft (even down through the floor) via the helmet’s visor and provides missile approach warning. The AN/ASQ-239 Barracuda electronic warfare suite provides radar warning, emitter location, jamming, and stealthy datalinks en.wikipedia.org en.wikipedia.org. All this information is fused by the F-35’s computers into a single coherent picture displayed to the pilot. The pilot’s helmet-mounted display (the $400k Gen III Helmet) projects flight data and target cues onto the visor, allowing “heads-up” viewing in any direction – even enabling the pilot to look through the airframe using DAS imagery. According to the U.S. Air Force, the F-35’s sensor package “gathers, fuses and distributes more information than any fighter in history,” giving the pilot unprecedented situational awareness af.mil af.mil. In essence, an F-35 operates less like a traditional fighter and more like an information node – detecting threats and sharing data via secure networks (like the MADL data link between F-35s or Link 16 with older jets) en.wikipedia.org. This makes it a force multiplier, “the quarterback of the fighting force,” as Lockheed describes it f35.com f35.com, coordinating other platforms in combat.

Weapons and Armament: In stealth configuration, the F-35 carries weapons internally in two bays to avoid radar detection. The standard internal load is 4 air-to-air missiles (AIM-120 AMRAAMs), or 2 AMRAAMs plus 2 air-to-ground bombs (up to 2,000 lb JDAMs or similar) en.wikipedia.org en.wikipedia.org. For example, an F-35A/C can internally carry two 2,000 lb GBU-31 JDAMs and two AIM-120 missiles, or other combinations like 8 smaller GBU-39/B Small Diameter Bombs with 2 AMRAAMs. The F-35B’s internal bays are slightly shorter, fitting up to 1,000 lb-class bombs (e.g. GBU-32 JDAMs). All variants can also mount weapons on external pylons (up to 6 additional hardpoints) for a maximum payload of 18,000 lb en.wikipedia.org en.wikipedia.org, albeit at the cost of stealth. In “beast mode” (stealth not required), an F-35 can haul a large arsenal comparable to legacy fighters – for instance, an F-35 can tote 4 AMRAAMs internally and 6 more weapons externally if needed en.wikipedia.org en.wikipedia.org. Munitions integrated on the F-35 include advanced air-to-air missiles (AIM-120C/D AMRAAM, AIM-9X Sidewinder, and planned AIM-260 JATM and MBDA Meteor in future Block 4 software) en.wikipedia.org en.wikipedia.org. Air-to-ground weapons include JDAM GPS-guided bombs, Paveway laser-guided bombs, the GBU-53/B StormBreaker glide bomb, AGM-154 JSOW standoff weapon, and anti-ship missiles like the AGM-158C LRASM and Norway’s Joint Strike Missile (JSM) (those anti-ship weapons are being added as part of Block 4) en.wikipedia.org en.wikipedia.org. The F-35A is also wired to carry the B61-12 nuclear gravity bomb for NATO nuclear-sharing missions once certified en.wikipedia.org. For close-range strafing or dogfight gun runs, the F-35A has an internal 25 mm GAU-22/Afour-barrel cannon (with 180 rounds) en.wikipedia.org. The B and C variants can carry an external gun pod with 220 rounds if needed en.wikipedia.org. In air combat training, the F-35 has demonstrated excellent effectiveness: pilots often report it can detect and shoot adversaries before being seen. In exercises like Red Flag, F-35s achieved lopsided kill ratios by leveraging stealth and sensor fusion to engage enemies from favorable positions. This combination of low observability, advanced sensors, and lethal weaponry makes the Lightning II extremely deadly in both BVR (beyond visual range) and within-visual-range combat.

In summary, the F-35 packs cutting-edge technology: it is a stealthy, supersonic fighter with the computing power and sensors to serve as an ISR and EW platform, all while carrying a formidable array of modern weapons. These capabilities come together to make it one of the most advanced combat aircraft in service globally as of 2025.

Operational History

After years of development and testing, the F-35 has seen an expanding operational footprint across the globe. Initial operational capability (IOC) was declared by the U.S. Marine Corps for the F-35B in July 2015, the Air Force’s F-35A in August 2016, and the Navy’s F-35C in early 2019 en.wikipedia.org. The Marine Corps was quick to forward-deploy its F-35Bs to the Western Pacific; by 2017, Marine F-35Bs from VMFA-121 were based in Japan. The first combat mission ever for an F-35 was conducted by Israel – Israeli Air Force F-35 “Adir” jets struck targets in the Middle East in 2018, making Israel the first country to use the F-35 in combat en.wikipedia.org. The Israeli F-35As have since reportedly conducted strikes in Syria and possibly elsewhere, capitalizing on the jet’s stealth to penetrate advanced air defenses en.wikipedia.org.

The United States soon followed with its own F-35s. On 27 September 2018, a US Marine Corps F-35B launched from the USS Essex (a Marine amphibious assault ship) conducted an airstrike against Taliban targets in Afghanistan – marking the first U.S. combat use of the F-35 defense.gov. The strike was successful, demonstrating the F-35B’s ability to project power from a seaborne platform deep into land-locked Afghanistan defense.gov. By 2019, the U.S. Air Force had its F-35As combat-ready and flew their first combat sorties in April 2019, dropping bombs on ISIS insurgents in Iraq marinecorpstimes.com. Since then, American F-35As have been periodically deployed for airstrikes and overwatch in conflict zones like Iraq and Syria, usually operating from bases in the Middle East.

In 2021, the UK became the first nation besides the U.S. to employ the F-35 in combat. British F-35B jets from the Royal Air Force’s 617 Squadron embarked on HMS Queen Elizabeth and carried out airstrikes against ISIS targets in the Middle East as part of Operation Shader in June 2021 royalnavy.mod.uk royalnavy.mod.uk. This marked not only the F-35’s first combat from a UK carrier, but also the first combat deployment of a British aircraft carrier in a decade. The Queen Elizabeth sailed with a mixed air wing of 18 F-35Bs (10 British and 8 U.S. Marine Corps jets), showcasing unprecedented integration – U.S. Marine pilots flew F-35 missions from a UK ship, a level of allied interoperability not seen since World War II royalnavy.mod.uk royalnavy.mod.uk. These F-35B strikes hit ISIS positions in support of coalition forces and underscored the jet’s value in coalition operations.

Several other operators have also begun flying the F-35 operationally. Italy has deployed its F-35As for NATO air policing missions over Iceland and Eastern Europe. Norway declared IOC with its F-35As in 2019 and now uses them to patrol its airspace and perform Quick Reaction Alert (QRA) intercepts (Norwegian F-35s have intercepted Russian aircraft approaching NATO airspace). Japan has stood up F-35A squadrons to enhance air defense against Chinese and Russian incursions – though Japan’s F-35s have not seen combat, one was lost in a 2019 crash at sea. Australia received its first F-35As in 2018 and now has an operational squadron; Australian F-35s regularly participate in exercises like Pitch Black and have replaced aging F/A-18s as the front-line fighters.

Not all operations have been smooth. A few accidents have occurred: in 2018 a USMC F-35B crashed due to a fuel tube failure (leading to a fleet-wide inspection), and in 2020 a USAF F-35A crashed during landing in Florida. In 2021–2022, two carrier-based F-35C accidents happened (one British F-35B rolled off HMS Queen Elizabeth due to an intake cover left on, and one US F-35C had a landing mishap on USS Carl Vinson). These incidents prompted recovery efforts to secure the sensitive wreckage and were lessons in operating this new jet. However, overall the safety and reliability are improving as teething problems are solved.

Today, the F-35 is operational with at least 10 air forces, and it has been battle-tested in the Middle East by multiple nations. F-35s have flown combat air patrols to deter adversary aircraft, struck insurgent targets in support of ground troops, and gathered critical ISR data in contested areas – all while largely evading detection. The global deployment footprint is growing rapidly: by mid-2025, F-35s operate from 49 bases worldwide and have accumulated over 1 million flight hours across the fleet f35.com f35.com. U.S. Navy and Marine F-35s are now regularly integrated into carrier strike groups, and Air Force F-35 squadrons have rotated through Europe and Asia to reinforce allies. In early 2022, for example, U.S. F-35s deployed to NATO’s eastern flank amid the Ukraine crisis to bolster deterrence. Such deployments highlight the F-35’s role as a coalition enabler – a common aircraft that can securely link up with other F-35s and legacy fighters, enhancing the effectiveness of allied air forces.

In sum, the F-35’s operational debut over the last 5–7 years has validated its core promises. Pilots have praised its situational awareness and survivability in combat. Lt. Col. Jeffrey Davis, a Marine F-35 squadron commander, noted after recent strikes that the F-35C “demonstrated its warfighting advantage by transiting contested airspace and striking targets in the heart of enemy territory” with impunity marinecorpstimes.com. With each deployment and mission, the F-35 Lightning II is cementing its status as a game-changing combat aircraft for the U.S. and its allies.

Costs and Production

The F-35 program’s scale and complexity have made it the most expensive military procurement ever. The Department of Defense’s latest estimates put the total projected cost to develop, purchase, operate, and sustain the F-35 fleet through 2070 at around $1.7 to $1.8 trillion airandspaceforces.com. In 2021, the Joint Program Office broke down an even higher figure of $2.1 trillion in then-year dollars, noting that nearly half of that is inflation over a 50+ year lifespan airandspaceforces.com. This staggering sum covers ~2,500 U.S. aircraft plus hundreds for allies, all maintenance, fuel, upgrades, and personnel. It’s important to note that because the F-35 is expected to serve into the late 21st century, these lifecycle cost estimates span decades of operations (the jet is required to estimate costs out to 2088) gao.gov gao.gov.

Unit procurement costs, however, have been coming down from the early days of production. Through the first production lots, F-35s were well over $100 million each. After multiple contracting rounds and increased volume, the price of an F-35A (the simplest variant) fell below $90M by Lot 11 (2019). The latest negotiated contract (Lots 15–17) put the average “flyaway” unit cost at $82.5 million for an F-35A, about $109 million for an F-35B, and $102 million for an F-35C defenseone.com defenseone.com. These figures include the engine and are in then-year dollars (2023–2024). Notably, these costs were slightly higher than the preceding lot due to inflation and added capabilities, but still lower in real terms than earlier years defenseone.com defenseone.com. Lockheed Martin has managed to reduce manufacturing costs through efficiencies and larger orders – since 2014, the unit price of an F-35A dropped by over 50%. However, in 2024 Lockheed warned that further cost reductions may have bottomed out; inflation, upgraded hardware, and smaller U.S. order quantities could push unit prices up again for the next lots defenseone.com defenseone.com. Indeed, with new Tech Refresh 3 hardware and Block 4 upgrades being added, future F-35s will be more capable but also pricier. Some officials speculate the F-35A could rise back toward $90–100M per jet in coming lots airandspaceforces.com airandspaceforces.com.

Beyond procurement, the operating and support (O&S) costs of the F-35 have drawn criticism. Annual sustainment costs are high – the cost per flight hour for an F-35A has been roughly $35,000–$40,000 (in 2020 dollars), significantly more than legacy fighters. The projected lifetime sustainment cost for the global F-35 fleet ballooned from $1.1 trillion in 2018 to $1.58 trillion by 2023 (in part because the service life was extended from 2077 to 2088) gao.gov gao.gov. These rising costs have forced changes: the U.S. Air Force and Navy have reduced annual flight hours per jet by 19% and 45% respectively, hoping to prolong component life and cut expenses gao.gov. The services are also leveraging more simulator training to maintain readiness while flying less airandspaceforces.com gao.gov. At the same time, maintenance pipelines are being improved – e.g. efforts to shorten repair times for spare parts and increase depot capacities – to raise the F-35’s mission-capable rates (which have hovered around 60–70%). There is a concerted push by the Pentagon and contractors to bring down sustainment costs such that by 2036, operating an F-35 is no more expensive than older jets defensenews.com. Initiatives to improve reliability have started paying off, with some components lasting longer before failure, saving an estimated $84 billion over the fleet’s life via various cost-saving measures gao.gov gao.gov.

On the production front, the F-35 program has now moved into a steady yearly rhythm. As of mid-2025, over 1,185 aircraft have been delivered across all customers f35.com f35.com. The main production line in Fort Worth, Texas, is supplemented by final assembly lines in Italy and Japan for regional partner deliveries. Annual output reached around ~120–150 jets per year in recent years, effectively full-rate production even before the official Milestone C was declared. (The Pentagon only approved the F-35 for formal full-rate production in 2023–2024, after a lengthy operational testing period airandspaceforces.com.) Going forward, production will continue at a high rate into the 2030s as orders are fulfilled. The U.S. program of record is 1,763 F-35As for the Air Force, 353 F-35Bs and 67 F-35Cs for the Marine Corps, and 273 F-35Cs for the Navy f35.com. In total, the U.S. is slated to buy 2,456 F-35s (though the Air Force in 2023–24 signaled it may slightly reduce its ultimate buy in favor of developing a sixth-gen fighter) airandspaceforces.com airandspaceforces.com. International partner and foreign military sales orders account for another 900+ jets. For example, the F-35 partner nations collectively plan over 500 jets, and newer customers like Japan (147 jets), South Korea (60), Poland (32), Finland (64), etc., add hundreds more f35.com f35.com. By 2035, it’s expected that well over 3,000 F-35s will be in service worldwide.

To summarize the finances: The F-35 delivers unprecedented capability, but at a very steep price. It exemplifies the classic trade-off of cutting-edge technology in military aviation. Acquisition costs per jet have moderated around ~$80–$100 million, competitive with other high-end fighters, but the overall program cost (due to sheer quantity and decades of sustainment) is enormous airandspaceforces.com. Keeping those lifetime costs under control remains one of the Pentagon’s biggest challenges. The program office has noted that half of the $2 trillion estimate is inflation and that the F-35 is the first major weapons program required to account for all future expenses up front airandspaceforces.com airandspaceforces.com. Officials stress that if the jet can be made more affordable to operate, it will pay dividends given the investment. The bottom line: the Lightning II is a capability triumph with a cost caution– it has met performance expectations in many areas, but the U.S. and allies will be paying the bill for decades to keep this fleet flying.

Controversies and Criticisms

Despite its technological prowess, the F-35 program has faced significant controversies, setbacks, and public criticism. It is often cited as a case study in the pitfalls of an overly ambitious defense acquisition. Key criticisms include:

• Cost Overruns and Delays: The Joint Strike Fighter effort was sold as a cost-effective multi-service solution, but it blew past original budgets by around 80% and fell behind schedule by years en.wikipedia.org. As of 2023, the program was roughly 10 years late compared to initial timelines en.wikipedia.org. Development proved far more complex than anticipated. The F-35 required integrating advanced stealth, a brand-new engine, revolutionary sensors, and vertical lift in one design – a tall order. The result was concurrency: building production jets while testing was still underway. When problems were discovered in testing, already-built jets had to be retrofitted at great expense. This concurrency strategy drew sharp criticism in oversight reports, which concluded it led to “expensive design changes and retrofits” that could have been avoided en.wikipedia.org. The program’s massive scale and numerous stakeholders also made it resistant to cancellation, even as costs climbed. By one measure, the F-35 program by 2021 was $165 billion over its original cost estimates and many years behind (it was re-baselined multiple times). The Government Accountability Office (GAO) and others frequently lambasted the program for failing to meet timelines and for opaque cost reporting gao.gov aa.com.tr. In March 2024 the F-35 finally achieved its “Milestone C” full-rate production decision – 23 years after program start – highlighting how protracted the development phase was airandspaceforces.com airandspaceforces.com.
• Technical Problems and Setbacks: Developing a fifth-gen fighter pushed the envelope, and the F-35 encountered hundreds of technical issues during testing. Early on, flight stability and software bugs emerged – a 2012 incident saw tailfin buffeting and a transonic instability (“wing drop”) that required design tweaks en.wikipedia.org. The F-35B’s complex lift fan mechanism had challenges with heating and reliability; early F-35Bs were found to have an initial service life as low as 2,100 hours before requiring heavy fixes, far short of the expected 8,000 hours (later lots improved this) en.wikipedia.org. The F-35A’s internal gun showed poor accuracy in testing due to misalignment in its mounting – requiring modifications. Ejection seat safety was a concern: in 2015 it was discovered that lightweight pilots faced a high risk of neck injury if they ejected, forcing an interim restriction on pilot weight and a redesign of the helmet and ejection sequence. The program also had to “fix as we fly” for issues like tire wear, helmet display lag, and even stealth coating durability – at one point in 2011 high-speed dives caused “bubbling and blistering” of F-35B/C stealth skin panels; a new heat-resistant coating and flight restrictions solved it en.wikipedia.org en.wikipedia.org.Perhaps the most persistent technical headache has been software. The F-35 operates on millions of lines of code across its flight systems and logistics. The software development proved slower and more troublesome than expected – as of 2019, the Pentagon’s test office noted that “software development…continued to be behind schedule” en.wikipedia.org. Delivery of the full Block 3F software (the baseline combat capability) was delayed multiple times, eventually completed in 2018. Even after initial fielding, the operational software has needed frequent updates to fix bugs that caused radar resets, sensor glitches, or computer reboots in flight. In 2023, GAO reported that the follow-on Block 4 modernization effort was overrunning – costs grew to $16.5 billion and the completion slipped to 2029 gao.gov. Block 4’s new capabilities were delayed by software stability problems that postponed a major update originally due in 2023 gao.gov gao.gov. These delays have a cascade effect, slowing the integration of new weapons and upgrades (some planned Block 4 features had to be deferred into later blocks or scaled back defenseone.com). In short, software has been a continuous pain point, not unusual for modern aircraft but amplified by the F-35’s complexity.
• Autonomic Logistics System (ALIS) Fiasco: The F-35 was supposed to revolutionize maintenance via its ALIS logistics system – an integrated database and planning tool that tracks the health of each jet, automates parts ordering, and guides maintenance crews. In practice, ALIS became “the F-35’s problematic” system that maintainers dreaded airandspaceforces.com. It was slow, prone to data errors and false failure warnings, and required manual workarounds. A 2019 report found one unit’s maintainers spent 45,000 extra man-hours per year due to ALIS malfunctions airandspaceforces.com airandspaceforces.com. ALIS laptops often took too long to boot, software updates lagged, and the system had cybersecurity vulnerabilities airandspaceforces.com airandspaceforces.com. The result was that instead of streamlining support, ALIS initially added to the workload and hurt readiness. The Pentagon finally decided to scrap the ALIS architecture and in 2020 announced a replacement called ODIN (Operational Data Integrated Network) airandspaceforces.com. ODIN is intended to be more user-friendly, cloud-based, and secure, addressing ALIS’s failures. However, transitioning to ODIN has itself been slower than hoped (it was originally expected by 2022, but is still ongoing). The ALIS/ODIN saga became emblematic of the F-35 program’s overpromises vs. delivered reality, and it drew sharp criticism from watchdogs and military leadership alike defence-blog.com airandspaceforces.com.
• High Operating Costs and Reliability Issues: As discussed in the cost section, the F-35’s maintenance and operating costs have been higher than planned. The jet has a very complex design, with sensitive stealth coatings, advanced electronics, and a single engine – all of which require intensive upkeep. Early in service, the fleet’s mission capable rates (percentage of jets ready to fly) were disappointingly low, around 50–60%, due in part to spare parts shortages and repair backlogs. Components like the canopy, power module, and tires showed shorter lifespans initially. Though reliability is improving, the military services and GAO have critiqued the sustainment enterprise (much of which is contractor-led) as too slow and costly defensenews.com. GAO warned that by 2036, if no improvements were made, the projected annual O&S costs would be billions more than the services can afford defensenews.com. This led the Air Force to say it might not be able to operate all its F-35s without cost reductions (at one point an Air Force official quipped they might have to park a third of the fleet if flying hour costs stayed sky-high) sgp.fas.org. To counter these criticisms, the F-35 JPO has implemented initiatives to reduce maintenance touch labor and increase parts availability. There have been moderate successes – for example, the engine (F135) reliability has improved and some depot repair timelines have shortened. Still, the public narrativepersists that the F-35 is “expensive to fly and maintain,” providing fodder for skeptics who argue it’s a “Ferrari”: high-performance but high-maintenance.
• Performance Critiques: The F-35 also weathered criticism that it couldn’t dogfight and was outmatched by older fighters in certain regimes. A leaked 2015 test report by a pilot flying mock dogfights in an F-35 against an F-16 suggested the F-35 struggled in close-in maneuvering due to its energy loss in tight turns. This caused a media stir that the F-35 “can’t turn or climb” – though the test was of an early-development jet without all its software, and later pilots have disputed that characterization. In exercises with the full 3F software, F-35s have performed very well even in visual-range fights, using their sensor aid and high angle-of-attack capability. Nonetheless, the episode fueled those who claimed the F-35 is inferior in a classic dogfight. Other performance-related knocks included its shorter range (critics note an F-35 has shorter combat radius than some twin-engine jets like the F-15 or Su-57) and its lower top speed and ceiling relative to dedicated air superiority fighters. The F-35 was never designed to be a super maneuverable dogfighter like the F-22, but rather a balanced strike fighter. Its defenders point out that in modern air combat, stealth and sensor fusion matter far more – an area where the F-35 excels. Indeed, few doubt the jet’s lethality when it’s launching missiles from beyond visual range without being seen.
• International and Political Controversies: The F-35 has seen its share of political drama. In the U.S., it became a frequent target of scrutiny in Congress, and even a talking point in presidential campaigns. (Notably, then-President Trump in 2016 criticized the F-35’s costs and mused about replacing it with F/A-18s, but later lauded the jet and claimed credit for negotiating a better deal on Lot 10 pricing). The program’s widespread subcontractor base – with jobs in 45+ states and many allied countries – has somewhat immunized it from cancellation, but also drawn criticism as “too big to fail.” Internationally, partners occasionally wavered: Canada initially helped fund development but froze its purchase for years amid political debate, only to re-commit to buying 88 F-35As in 2022. Turkey, a level 3 partner, was infamously expelled from the F-35 program in 2019 after it bought Russian S-400 air defense systems, which the US said posed a security risk to the F-35 en.wikipedia.org. Turkey had planned to buy 100 F-35s and was producing over 900 key components; its removal forced the program to scramble to find alternate suppliers for certain parts en.wikipedia.org. Other NATO allies like Denmark and Belgium faced domestic debates about the F-35’s cost vs. capability but ultimately selected it over competitors (the F-35 beat out Eurofighter, Rafale, and Gripen in multiple European tenders). In some countries, the jet became a lightning rod for critics of defense spending – for instance, in The Netherlands and Australia, opposition parties at times called for cancelling or reducing the buy. However, in each case the F-35’s capabilities and the importance of aligning with the U.S. and NATO prevailed. Still, the narrative of the F-35 as a “budget-busting boondoggle” persists in some media. The program has tried to counter this by highlighting improvements and successes (the JPO even published a detailed rebuttal of the $2 trillion cost figure to provide context airandspaceforces.com).

In summary, the F-35’s journey has been turbulent. It achieved its overarching goal of fielding a cutting-edge, multi-role stealth fighter across the U.S. and allies, but at the cost of much pain and criticism along the way. Many of the early technical troubles have been ironed out, and cost metrics are slowly trending in the right direction, but skeptics remain. The F-35 arguably embodies the pros and cons of an ultra-advanced defense program: it delivers unprecedented capability, yet its development struggles and expense have made it a focal point of debate about defense procurement. As the jet continues to mature, the hope is that operational success will eventually overshadow the early controversies.

Upgrades and Modernization (as of 2025)

The F-35 is not a static platform – it was designed with continuous upgrades in mind to keep pace with evolving threats. The program is now in the midst of a major modernization phase known as Block 4, enabled by a hardware refresh called Tech Refresh 3 (TR-3). These upgrades (rolling out through the late 2020s) will significantly improve the F-35’s computing power, sensors, and weapons capacity:

• Tech Refresh 3 (TR-3): This is a critical upgrade of the F-35’s core hardware and software environment, forming the foundation for Block 4. TR-3 includes a new integrated core processor that is an order of magnitude more powerful, a memory increase, and modernized cockpit displays airandspaceforces.com airandspaceforces.com. These improvements are needed to run more complex software and to process data from new sensors. TR-3 essentially gives the F-35 the “brain and nerves” for future capabilities. It allows open architecture features so the jet can accept new applications more easily. The TR-3 upgrade also addresses earlier software stability issues – pilots should see “a much higher increase in stability” (fewer system reboots/hangs) with the new TR-3 software load airandspaceforces.com airandspaceforces.com. However, implementing TR-3 proved challenging: in 2023, the discovery of problems in testing TR-3 led the Pentagon to temporarily halt F-35 deliveries for nearly a year airandspaceforces.com. Lockheed had built dozens of new F-35s with TR-3 hardware that were sitting in storage waiting for stable software defenseone.com. By mid-2024, the JPO lifted the delivery freeze after test progress, and those jets began rolling out with interim software airandspaceforces.com defenseone.com. As of early 2025, initial TR-3 jets are being delivered with a truncated software (providing about 90–95% of Block 4’s intended features) until the full software is validated defenseone.com. Lockheed expects to have the complete combat-capable TR-3 software by spring 2025, pending test results defenseone.com. The delay in TR-3 has had a domino effect on Block 4, compressing its timeline defenseone.com. Nonetheless, TR-3 is finally coming online, and it unlocks the path to all future enhancements.
• Block 4 Modernization: Block 4 refers to a suite of ~80 upgrades and new capabilities that will be incrementally added to the F-35 between now and the early 2030s airandspaceforces.com airandspaceforces.com. It’s often called the Continuous Capability Development and Delivery (C2D2) phase. The focus of Block 4 is improving sensors, adding weapons, and enhancing electronic warfare airandspaceforces.com airandspaceforces.com. Some key Block 4 elements include: a new AN/APG-85 radar (an upgraded AESA radar starting on Lot 17+ jets) with greater range and resolution en.wikipedia.org; an improved Distributed Aperture System (with newer IR sensors made by Raytheon, providing sharper imagery and lower false alarm rates); enhancements to the Electronic Warfare suite for expanded frequency coverage and better geolocation of threats; and communications upgrades(such as multi-ship sensor fusion and improved datalinks). Block 4 also integrates a host of new weapons: the AIM-260 JATM, a next-gen long-range air-to-air missile intended to replace some AMRAAMs en.wikipedia.org; the MBDA Meteor beyond-visual-range missile for European F-35 operators (UK and Italy plan to arm their F-35Bs with Meteor by late 2020s) en.wikipedia.org; the SPEAR 3 small standoff missile (for UK F-35Bs) en.wikipedia.org; Norway’s JSM anti-ship cruise missile en.wikipedia.org; the AGM-88G AARGM-ERadvanced anti-radar missile; and possibly other future weapons like the B61-12 nuclear bomb integration on all F-35A variants (currently undergoing final certification) en.wikipedia.org. In fact, Lockheed says Block 4 will allow the F-35 to employ at least 13 new weapons that it couldn’t before en.wikipedia.org en.wikipedia.org. Beyond weapons and sensors, Block 4 includes upgrades to the navigation and targeting software, enhancements for cooperative engagement (sharing target data seamlessly with other assets), and improved electronic countermeasures for survival against advanced SAMs. Due to the TR-3 delays and the ambitious scope, some originally planned Block 4 items have been deferred. The JPO announced in 2023 it would “replan” Block 4 to prioritize what can be delivered on time and push lower-priority items into later increments defenseone.com. As a result, some capabilities might slip into a future “Block 5”. Still, many Block 4 improvements are already rolling out. In mid-2025, Lockheed is releasing the first Block 4 software drops, which will immediately provide new features to F-35 fleets (for example, early integration of the AGM-158C LRASM anti-ship missile and other upgrades) airandspaceforces.com airandspaceforces.com. Block 4 is slated to continue adding features through at least 2029. It is essentially a big leap in F-35 capability, keeping the jet at the forefront as new threats like sophisticated air defenses emerge.
• Engine and Power/Thermal Upgrades: Block 4’s added tech is pushing the limits of the F-35’s current engine and cooling systems. To ensure the jet can handle future demands, the Pentagon initiated an effort to boost the F-35’s engine thrust, efficiency, and thermal management. There was a debate between developing a brand-new adaptive cycle engine (like GE’s XA100) versus upgrading the existing Pratt & Whitney F135. In 2023, the decision was made to pursue the F135 Engine Core Upgrade (ECU) – effectively a block upgrade to the current engine. Pratt & Whitney says this Enhanced Engine Package will add thrust and cooling capacity to meet Block 4 needs. The upgraded F135 is planned to be fielded around 2029 defenseone.com. However, a recent GAO report suggests that fully upgraded engines might not arrive until 2032, a few years later than hoped breakingdefense.com. In the interim, Pratt & Whitney has improved the durability of current F135s to reduce maintenance. Alongside the engine, the onboard cooling system (which dissipates heat from electronics and the engine) needs an overhaul. The F-35 JPO intends to hold a competition to develop a new cooling system for Block 4 jets, with Honeywell (maker of the current system) likely facing off against Collins Aerospace for a more advanced solution defenseone.com. These power and cooling upgrades are crucial because Block 4/5 capabilities – like more powerful sensors and high-energy devices – generate additional heat and draw more power. Without upgrades, the F-35 would overheat or be unable to fully exploit new tech. The engine and thermal improvements will ensure the F-35 can “stay cool”under increased workloads and potentially even accommodate directed-energy weapons one day, should those be developed for fighters.
• Connectivity and Teaming: Another exciting area of F-35 modernization is integration with unmanned systems and broader battle networks. The F-35’s computing and communication suite is being enhanced to act as a “node” in the Joint All-Domain Command and Control (JADC2) framework, meaning it can feed data to ground, air, space, and sea assets more effectively. In October 2024, a Marine Corps F-35B conducted a notable test flight with a Kratos XQ-58A Valkyrie drone as a loyal wingman, demonstrating that an F-35 could potentially control or coordinate with autonomous drones in flight 19fortyfive.com 19fortyfive.com. The F-35 sent commands and received data from the Valkyrie UAV, indicating progress toward MUM-T (manned-unmanned teaming) capabilities. While still early, this suggests future F-35s might fly with semi-autonomous wingmen that scout ahead or carry extra weapons. The Russian Su-57 has similarly flown with an “Okhotnik” drone wingman 19fortyfive.com, and the concept is likely to be a key part of sixth-generation systems. Upgraded F-35s could serve as quarterbacks for a formation of loyal wingman drones, significantly multiplying combat power. Additionally, software updates are improving the F-35’s ability to share its extensive sensor data – for example, the jet can pass high-quality target tracks via Link 16 to legacy fighters or even cue surface-to-air defenses to engage threats it detects. The jet’s Multifunction Advanced Data Link (MADL), once only F-35-to-F-35, is being looked at for expansion to communicate with other stealth platforms (like the B-21 bomber or future drones). In essence, modernization is making the F-35 not just a fighter, but a “battle network node” that elevates the capabilities of everything around it.

Looking ahead, the F-35 program is already contemplating Block 5 and 6 upgrades. While not yet defined, areas of interest include things like infrared search and track (IRST) systems (the F-35 currently relies on its DAS and EOTS for IR tracking, but an advanced IRST could further help against stealthy targets) airandspaceforces.com, fuel tank extensions or conformal fuel tanks to increase range (the idea of external drop tanks that minimize stealth impact, as tested on F-22, could carry over) airandspaceforces.com, and perhaps integration of directed-energy weapons if power allows (farther future). The F-35’s open architecture will let it receive incremental software-defined capabilities as well, maybe including AI-driven decision aids. Notably, some capabilities originally thought to be far off might be pulled forward if ready – the program is taking a flexible approach where “Block 5” features could be inserted earlier if matured airandspaceforces.com.

By 2025, we are seeing the first fruits of F-35 modernization: fleets will soon get the initial Block 4 software, delivering new weapons and improved sensor performance, and TR-3 hardware jets will become the new standard. These upgrades will ensure the F-35 maintains its edge over emerging threats. As Air Force Lt. Gen. Mike Schmidt (F-35 program head) put it, continuous upgrades are vital so that “we have enough time to do the body of work…to ensure we stay ahead of the threat” airandspaceforces.com airandspaceforces.com. The Block 4/5 efforts are essentially about future-proofing the F-35, keeping it lethal and relevant well into mid-century.

Global Operators and International Partners

From its inception, the F-35 was a multinational program, and it has grown into a fighter shared by a coalition of allied nations. The development partnership included 8 original international partners contributing funds and expertise: the United States, United Kingdom, Italy, Netherlands, Canada, Australia, Norway, and Denmark en.wikipedia.org. (An additional partner, Turkey, was removed in 2019.) These countries joined the JSF program in tiers and received industrial work share in return. Beyond the core partners, the F-35 attracted numerous Foreign Military Sales (FMS) customers. As of 2025, over 17 countries have either fielded the F-35 or placed firm orders for it, making it the de facto NATO standard future fighter and a key asset for U.S. allies in Asia-Pacific.

Here’s an overview of F-35 global operators and partners:

• United States – By far the largest F-35 user. The U.S. will acquire all three variants: F-35A for the Air Force (1,763 planned) f35.com, F-35B for the Marine Corps (353 planned) and F-35C for both Navy (273 planned) and Marines (67 planned for carrier use) f35.com f35.com. The U.S. has over 600 F-35s delivered to date across the Air Force, Marines, and Navy. They operate from numerous bases in the continental US as well as forward in Europe and Asia. The US services have stood up multiple combat-coded squadrons and have seen action as discussed. The U.S. F-35 fleet will form the backbone of American air power, with the Air Force alone eventually fielding over 1,500 F-35As in dozens of squadrons replacing F-16s and A-10s. The F-35 Joint Program Office (JPO) manages the program on behalf of all operators.
• United Kingdom – The UK is the top-level (Tier 1) partner and the only Level 1 partner besides the U.S. The Royal Air Force and Royal Navy together will operate 138 F-35B STOVL variants (this is the current plan, though so far only 48 are on order) f35.com. The UK chose the F-35B to fly from its two new Queen Elizabeth-class aircraft carriers. The first RAF frontline squadron (617 Sqn) is combat-ready, and a second squadron is building up. British F-35Bs participated in the jet’s first carrier combat deployment in 2021 (strikes on ISIS). The UK has a significant industrial role – BAE Systems and Rolls-Royce are major contributors (BAE built the rear fuselage for all F-35s, and RR developed the B variant’s lift system). The UK’s Carrier Strike Group 21 deployment showcased British F-35s working alongside US Marine F-35s, highlighting deep integration royalnavy.mod.uk royalnavy.mod.uk.
• Italy – A level 2 partner, Italy is acquiring both F-35A (conventional) and F-35B (STOVL) variants. The Italian Air Force will get 60 F-35As and 15 F-35Bs, while the Italian Navy is buying 15 F-35B to replace Harriers on its aircraft carrier Cavour – for a total of 90 planned F-35s. (There have been discussions in Italy about possibly increasing the buy, but 90 is the official number.) Italy operates an F-35 final assembly and check-out (FACO)facility in Cameri, which assembles F-35s for itself and the Netherlands, and also manufactures wings for the program sgp.fas.org sgp.fas.org. The Italian Air Force has activated F-35A squadrons, including deployments for NATO air policing in Iceland and the Baltics. Italy’s first F-35Bs (Air Force) have also landed on its carrier for testing. Italy achieved initial operating capability with the F-35A in 2018 and with the F-35B in 2021. Italian industry (Leonardo, etc.) provides components like wing sections, and Italy plays a key role in the Mediterranean theater with its F-35s.
• Netherlands – A level 2 partner, the Royal Netherlands Air Force is buying 46 F-35A (up from an initial 37; they increased the order to strengthen defenses) and there are discussions to go beyond 50. The Dutch were early adopters – they had F-35s participating in testing at Edwards AFB, and their first operational F-35 unit became mission-ready in 2021. The Netherlands has used F-35As to take over NATO air-policing in Eastern Europe and has flown training exercises across Europe. In 2022, Dutch F-35s deployed to Bulgaria amid tensions with Russia. The Netherlands hosts the Cameri FACO in partnership with Italy (Dutch jets are assembled there). Dutch industry (like Fokker) contributes electrical wiring and composite structures. The Dutch have been proponents of the jet’s information-sharing abilities in NATO integrated air and missile defense.
• Canada – An original level 3 partner, Canada paused for many years before committing to buy the F-35. In 2022, Canada officially selected the F-35A and in early 2023 signed a contract for 88 F-35As f35.com. These will replace the CF-18 Hornets. Deliveries are expected to start mid-decade, with the first Canadian jets used for training in the U.S. around 2025 and initial operational capability by 2027–28. Canada’s decision ended a long political saga where alternatives were considered, but ultimately the F-35’s interoperability and capability won out. As a partner, Canada’s industries (Magellan, etc.) produce components like engine parts and composites for the global fleet. Once fielded, Canadian F-35s will guard North American airspace under NORAD and deploy overseas as needed.
• Australia – A level 3 partner, Australia committed early and is buying 72 F-35A Lightning IIs (with an option to increase to around 100) f35.com. The Royal Australian Air Force (RAAF) has already received 50+ jets and declared IOC in 2020. F-35As have replaced Australia’s F/A-18A/B Classic Hornets, joining the fleet alongside EA-18G Growlers and F/A-18F Super Hornets. Australian F-35s are based at RAAF Williamtown and Tindal, and participate in regional exercises like Pitch Black and Talisman Sabre. The RAAF has been very pleased with the F-35’s performance. Australian industry (BAE Australia, Quickstep, etc.) manufactures pieces like vertical tails, composite panels, and has a regional depot for F-35 maintenance. The F-35 is central to Australia’s air combat strategy, which faces a rising challenge from advanced Chinese aircraft in the Indo-Pacific.
• Norway – A level 3 partner, Norway is acquiring 52 F-35A to replace its F-16s f35.com. Norway’s fleet is well underway – all deliveries are expected by 2025. The Royal Norwegian Air Force has stood up multiple F-35 squadrons; Norway declared IOC in 2019 and has since retired all its F-16s, making the F-35A its sole fighter. Norway’s F-35s are based at Ørland Main Air Station, with QRA duties at Evenes in the Arctic north (protecting the high north region). Norwegian F-35s have scrambled to monitor Russian military flights near NATO airspace. A unique contribution: Norway co-developed the Joint Strike Missile (JSM), a stealthy anti-ship and land-attack cruise missile that will be integrated into the F-35’s internal bay – giving the F-35 a potent standoff weapon, especially useful in Norway’s maritime environment en.wikipedia.org. Norwegian industry (Kongsberg, Nammo) also supplies parts like titanium components. The F-35’s high-end capabilities are crucial for Norway given its border with Russia’s advanced air defenses in the Far North.
• Denmark – A level 3 partner, Denmark is purchasing 27 F-35A fighters f35.com. Denmark selected the F-35 in 2016 to replace F-16AM/BMs, beating out competitors largely due to stealth and interoperability factors. The Royal Danish Air Force will base its F-35s at Skrydstrup, with the first jets arriving in-country in 2023. Danish pilots and maintainers have been training in the U.S. The full Danish fleet should be operational around 2027. Though a smaller fleet, Danish F-35s will deploy for NATO tasks and national defense. Denmark’s Terma company produces composite pylons and other parts for all F-35s, making Denmark a notable contributor.
• Japan – A significant FMS customer (initially not a JSF partner, but now one of the largest operators). Japan is acquiring 147 F-35s: specifically, 105 F-35A and 42 F-35B f35.com. The F-35A is replacing Japan’s F-4EJ Phantoms and augmenting F-15Js, while the F-35B will be used to equip Japan’s nascent aircraft carriers (Izumoclass helicopter destroyers being converted to light carriers). Japan already has around 30 F-35As delivered, with a domestic final assembly line in Nagoya handling a portion of the build. Japan declared initial operational deployment of F-35As at Misawa Air Base. In 2019, one JASDF F-35A crashed into the Pacific (attributed to pilot disorientation), which was a setback but Japan reaffirmed its commitment. The decision in 2018 to add F-35Bs came as Japan moves to counter regional threats by fielding carrier strike capabilities. Japanese F-35s are expected to be a cornerstone of the Japan-US alliance, operating closely with US forces in East Asia. Mitsubishi Heavy Industries and others in Japan are licensed to assemble and manufacture F-35 components (Japan produces parts like electrical systems and some fuselage sections).
• South Korea (Republic of Korea) – South Korea is buying 40 F-35A (under contract) with plans for 20 more(approved, making 60 total) f35.com. The Republic of Korea Air Force (ROKAF) has received most of the first 40 and established F-35 squadrons at Cheongju Air Base. South Korea’s F-35As give it a stealth strike capability to hold North Korean missile launchers and command sites at risk, a key part of Seoul’s deterrence strategy. The ROKAF F-35As are fully operational – in fact, South Korea had an incident in early 2022 where an F-35 had a landing gear up emergency landing (belly landing) but was repaired. South Korea is now considering additional F-35Bs for its navy’s planned light aircraft carrier, although that project’s status is uncertain. Korean industry (KAI, LIG Nex1, etc.) contributed some components (like wing parts) via offsets. The F-35’s introduction has shifted the regional balance, prompting North Korea to protest and China/Russia to keep a close eye on the jet’s deployments.
• Israel – Israel was not an official JSF partner but has been a special FMS customer with unique customization rights. The Israeli Air Force has ordered 50 F-35A (locally designated “F-35I Adir”) and is likely to expand to 75 f35.com. They have around 36 delivered so far. Israel’s F-35Is achieved IOC in 2017 and quickly were used in combat (as noted, Israel was first to use the F-35 in action in 2018) en.wikipedia.org. The IAF has allegedly flown F-35s on missions in Syria, Iraq, and possibly Iran’s airspace, leveraging the jet’s stealth to strike high-value targets (though they officially keep operations classified). Israel has integrated its own electronic warfare and command systems into the F-35I, and plans to add indigenous weaponry. Israeli industry (IAI, Elbit) produces the F-35’s helmet display system and other avionics. The F-35 has significantly bolstered Israel’s qualitative military edge in the region – Israeli officials have praised its ability to evade advanced SAMs and stated it “opened a new era” in air warfare for them.
• Other European Customers: Belgium is acquiring 34 F-35A (chosen in 2018 to replace F-16s) f35.com, with deliveries from 2023 onward. Poland ordered 32 F-35A in 2020 as part of its military modernization f35.com; Polish pilots began training in 2022 and first deliveries are expected by 2024, which will give Poland one of Eastern Europe’s first stealth fleets. Finland selected the F-35A in 2021 to replace F/A-18C/Ds – a huge win, with 64 F-35Aon order f35.com; deliveries start 2025 and will make Finland (now a NATO member) a major F-35 operator defending Northern Europe. Switzerland also picked the F-35A in a 2021 competition, signing for 36 F-35A in 2022 f35.com; this was somewhat controversial domestically but is proceeding, with deliveries 2027–2030. Germany decided in 2022 to buy 35 F-35A to replace Tornados in the nuclear-sharing role (carrying B61 bombs) f35.com – a significant move given Germany had previously been in the Eurofighter camp. Germany’s first F-35s are expected around 2026 and will equip the Luftwaffe’s dedicated nuclear strike wing. Denmark and Norwaywere covered above as partners. Canada is now also proceeding as discussed. Czech Republic in 2023 committed to 24 F-35A (approved by government, contract in negotiation) f35.com. Greece has formally requested 20 F-35A, likely to be approved, with an option for 20 more f35.com. Romania announced intentions for 32 F-35 in 2023 (to replace MiG-21s and F-16s by 2030) f35.com. These recent European additions (Finland, Switzerland, Germany, Czech, Greece, Romania) underscore how the F-35 has swept the Western market – it effectively beat out all competition, becoming the fighter of choice for NATO and allies. This broad adoption means interoperabilitybenefits – in future coalitions, many air forces will be flying the same platform, sharing tactics, training, and even maintenance infrastructure.
• Asia-Pacific and Other: Japan, South Korea, Australia were described above. Additionally, Singapore – a close U.S. partner – has ordered 4 F-35B (with 8 options, likely to be exercised for a total of 12) f35.com. Singapore is evaluating the B variant for its small land area (and perhaps to operate from roads or their proposed flat-deck support vessel). If all options are taken, Singapore could have a mix of 8 F-35B and possibly 4 F-35A, but currently the focus is STOVL for unique flexibility f35.com. Spain is reportedly considering the F-35B to replace its Harriers on the Juan Carlos carrier, but no order yet. Turkey would have been an operator of ~100 F-35A/B, but after its removal, it pivoted to other projects (Turkey is now co-developing a 5th-gen fighter indigenously). There is occasional discussion of the U.S. potentially offering F-35s to India or other partners, but as of 2025 none outside the above have been approved.

International participation also means shared training and basing. For example, pilot training for many countries takes place in the U.S. (at Luke AFB and Eglin AFB) where multinational training squadrons exist. There are also regional maintenance hubs being established (e.g. in Europe, Italy and the UK serve as engine and airframe depots; in the Pacific, Australia and Japan have depots). This global enterprise is monitored by the F-35 JPO to ensure all partners have access to supply chains. However, not all F-35s are identical – Israel’s have custom mods, and some allies get jets with certain features disabled per export controls (for instance, the full stealth coatings formula and certain electronic frequencies are tightly controlled by the U.S.).

Overall, the F-35 is now firmly an international fighter. It strengthens coalition airpower by allowing seamless integration. Allied F-35s can securely share target data with each other and with U.S. forces, making a combined air fleet far more effective than disparate aircraft types. We saw this in 2021 when UK and US Marine F-35Bs operated interchangeably from each other’s carriers royalnavy.mod.uk. In future conflicts, one can envision mixed squadrons of American, European, and Pacific ally F-35s executing missions together, each with the same cutting-edge situational awareness. This interoperability is a strategic advantage that the U.S. hopes to leverage. From Europe’s north (Norwegian F-35s above the Arctic) to the South Pacific (Australian F-35s), the Lightning II has truly encircled the globe.

Comparison with Rival Jets (F-22, Su-57, J-20)

Inevitably, the F-35 invites comparison with other top-tier fighters – both U.S. and foreign. It’s important to note that the F-35 was designed with a different philosophy than pure air superiority jets like the F-22 or some foreign counterparts. Below is a comparative look at the F-35 Lightning II versus its closest “rival” fifth-generation fighters:

F-35 vs. F-22 Raptor (USAF): The F-22 is the U.S. Air Force’s premier air dominance fighter, introduced in 2005. It’s a fifth-generation stealth fighter like the F-35, but optimized purely for air superiority (with limited ground attack). The F-22 has twin engines giving it greater thrust – it can supercruise at ~Mach 1.8 and reach Mach 2.0+ at altitude 19fortyfive.com 19fortyfive.com. Its service ceiling (~65,000 ft) is higher than the F-35’s (~50,000 ft) 19fortyfive.com 19fortyfive.com. The F-22 also outperforms in raw kinematics: higher acceleration, better sustained turning at altitude, and supermaneuverability with thrust vectoring. It is arguably the stealthiest fighter in the world, with slightly lower radar cross section than the F-35 from certain aspects (the F-22 was designed during the Cold War with a no-compromise stealth approach). In a dogfight, the F-22 holds an edge with its agility and higher thrust-to-weight. It also carries more air-to-air missiles internally (6 AMRAAMs + 2 Sidewinders, versus the F-35’s 4 AMRAAMs without stealth pod) nationalinterest.org. However, the F-22 lacks many of the F-35’s newer bells and whistles. Its sensor suite, while powerful (AN/APG-77 radar and IRST coming), is older and less integrated. The F-22 does not have something equivalent to the F-35’s Distributed Aperture System or the fancy helmet display. It was built with 1990s avionics and later upgraded with modest computing improvements. The F-35, being a decade newer, has a more advanced architecture for sensor fusion. The F-22 also cannot carry the variety of guided air-to-ground munitions the F-35 can – it was later modified to drop small diameter bombs but is primarily an air-to-air platform. Critically, the F-22 was never exported and only about 187 were built (production ended in 2011), meaning it’s a unique but small fleet. The F-35, by contrast, will be over 15 times as numerous and used by dozens of nations. In sum, F-22 vs F-35: the F-22 is still king in a pure dogfight or high-altitude intercept (faster, higher, very stealthy), but the F-35 is more versatile with better strike capability, cutting-edge electronics, and the ability to serve as an information node. The two are complementary – in fact, they often operate together, with F-22s kicking down the enemy’s door and F-35s providing the all-around “quarterback” role. Both jets are highly stealthy; one U.S. pilot quipped that an F-22 and F-35 would have a hard time detecting each other and it might come down to luck and pilot skill. The F-22’s major drawback is simply that there are so few of them and they lack the multi-role enhancements of modern tech (and will not be upgraded much further since the line is closed). The F-35 benefits from lessons learned on the F-22 and adds modern computing and broad mission flexibility at the expense of some raw performance.

F-35 vs. Sukhoi Su-57 “Felon” (Russia): The Su-57 is Russia’s attempt at a fifth-generation fighter, intended as a multi-role stealth aircraft succeeding the Su-27/30 series. It first flew in 2010 and entered limited service around 2020. Only about 22–32 Su-57s have been built as of 2025, with maybe half operational (Western estimates vary) 19fortyfive.com. The Su-57 in concept is more of an air superiority fighter that can also strike – it’s twin-engined, with large size and emphasis on maneuverability. The Su-57’s advertised performance is impressive: speed around Mach 2.0 (similar to F-22, faster than F-35) 19fortyfive.com 19fortyfive.com, supermaneuverability with 3D thrust vectoring (it can perform extreme aerobatic moves like the “cobra” – spectacular at airshows but of limited combat utility). It reportedly has a very high ceiling (perhaps 60,000 ft, though some say only 50,000 ft) 19fortyfive.com and a long range – often quoted over 3,000 km (1,860 miles) with internal fuel 19fortyfive.com 19fortyfive.com, significantly more than F-35 or F-22 (the Felon is a big airframe that can hold a lot of fuel). However, the Su-57’s Achilles heel is stealth and sensors. By most analyses, the Su-57 is less stealthy than the F-35 or F-22 19fortyfive.com 19fortyfive.com. Its design has some stealth shaping (especially from the front), but it has features like exposed engine compressor faces from certain angles, serration gaps, and use of plasma afterburners that likely give it a higher radar cross-section. The Russian approach seems to balance stealth with supermaneuverability, whereas the F-35 prioritizes stealth and sensor fusion over extreme agility. In terms of avionics, the Su-57 has an AESA radar and IRST, but Russia has struggled with microelectronics – its sensor fusion and software are not believed to be at the F-35’s level. Its pilot interface is more conventional (no integrated helmet display as advanced as the F-35’s). The Su-57’s intended second-stage engines (Izdeliye 30) have been delayed, so current jets use older AL-41F1 engines, which don’t provide full performance and are less fuel efficient 19fortyfive.com 19fortyfive.com. The Su-57 can carry a variety of Russian weapons, including R-77 and R-73 air-to-air missiles internally, and reportedly even the large R-37M if carried semi-internally. It also can carry anti-ground ordnance and even the Kinzhal hypersonic missile externally 19fortyfive.com. But with so few built and limited operational use, its true capabilities remain partly unproven. Russia did deploy a handful of Su-57s during the war in Syria and more recently in the Ukraine theater, but kept them largely out of harm’s way – reports suggest Su-57s have fired stand-off missiles from within Russian airspace in Ukraine, not engaging in direct aerial combat 19fortyfive.com. This implies Russia is cautious with them and perhaps not fully confident in their survivability against modern SAMs or fighters. In a hypothetical matchup, an F-35’s advantage would be in detecting the Su-57 first (thanks to superior stealth and sensor fusion) and shooting first. The Su-57’s best chance would be if it got into a within-visual-range dogfight where its agility could come into play – but the F-35, though not as nimble as a Su-57, is no slouch and carries high-off-boresight AIM-9X missiles and the Helmet display to cue them, which is a deadly combination. As one analysis put it, “The F-35 and F-22 have better stealth… the Su-57 has longer range … speeds are similar, and the Su-57 is likely less maneuverable than the F-22 and F-35” 19fortyfive.com. It’s telling that U.S. commanders so far seem unimpressed by the Su-57; its limited production and deployment mean it hasn’t shifted the air power balance in a significant way. The F-35, produced in the hundreds, outweighs the Su-57 not just qualitatively but quantitatively too.

F-35 vs. Chengdu J-20 “Mighty Dragon” (China): The J-20 is China’s first fifth-generation fighter, introduced into PLAAF service around 2017. It’s a large, twin-engine stealth fighter primarily designed for long-range air superiority and possibly interceptor roles, though China may develop strike variants. The J-20 is often compared to the F-22 in size and mission, but how does it stack up? The J-20’s strengths include high speed (estimated Mach 2.0) and a large fuel and weapons capacity. Newer J-20 versions are powered by Chinese WS-15 engines (replacing older Russian engines), reportedly giving it supercruise ability and around 40,000+ lb thrust each – comparable thrust to an F-22’s engines en.wikipedia.org. The J-20 likely has a combat radius of 1,100–1,200 km (~600–700 nmi), which is similar to or greater than the F-35A’s, given its big internal fuel load, but one Chinese limitation is lack of overseas tankers and bases, meaning actual effective range for power projection is constrained. The J-20 can carry at least 4 long-range PL-15 missiles internally (perhaps 6 if they redesigned bays) and two shorter-range AAMs in side bays youtube.com. It’s rumored a new PL-21 long-range missile or ramjet missiles may also arm it. In terms of stealth, the J-20 shows a frontal aspect stealth design – chined nose, similar canopy framing to F-22, internal carriage, etc. But it has canard foreplanes, which are generally considered bad for stealth as they reflect radar, though the Chinese likely timed their alignment to reduce signature. Experts assess the J-20 is stealthy from the front, though maybe not as low-observable as F-35 or F-22 (some estimates put J-20 radar cross-section around 0.01–0.1 m², versus F-35 perhaps 0.001–0.01 m²) idrw.org. From side and rear aspects, the J-20 might be less stealthy – its nozzles were initially unstealthy, though new WS-15 engines have serrated nozzles. In agility, the J-20 is large and likely not as agile in close-in fights; Chinese sources admit it “lacks the agility of the F-22” 19fortyfive.com. It’s probably comparable or slightly less maneuverable than an F-35 (no thrust vectoring on J-20 as of now, though large control surfaces and canards give it decent agility). For sensors, the J-20 is equipped with an AESA radar and an Electro-Optical Targeting System (similar concept to F-35’s EOTS) 19fortyfive.com 19fortyfive.com. Chinese officials claim advanced tracking capabilities, but questions remain about the fidelity and sensor fusion. The J-20 likely has data linking and some sensor fusion, but whether it matches the polished integration of the F-35 is unknown. The mission systems and software on the J-20 are a bit of a black box – China is rapidly improving in this area, but the F-35 has a decade of software refinement under its belt. Notably, a Chinese test pilot implied the J-20’s true test is going to be its electronics, not aerodynamics, implicitly acknowledging it’s behind the West in that arena 19fortyfive.com 19fortyfive.com. One advantage of the J-20 is its sheer size and payload – it’s been described as a “bomb truck” able to carry almost 28,000 lbs of ordnance (external + internal) 19fortyfive.com 19fortyfive.com, far more than an F-35 (18,000 lb) 19fortyfive.com 19fortyfive.com. Of course, loading externally sacrifices stealth, but it means the J-20 could haul heavy anti-ship or standoff missiles in a non-stealthy scenario, acting almost like a mini-bomber. The F-35, conversely, wasn’t built for heavy external loads in stealth missions. In a potential clash, an F-35 would rely on its superior all-aspect stealth and sensor fusion to get the drop on a J-20. The J-20’s best use might be shooting very long-range missiles (like PL-15 said to have 200+ km range) at high-value enablers (tankers, AWACS) or trying to engage fighters at beyond visual range. The U.S. is countering with tactics and potentially longer-range AIM-260 missiles. As of now, J-20 vs F-35 remains speculative since neither has faced the other. The PLAAF has started sending J-20s on patrols near Taiwan and the East China Sea, and interestingly, the USAF F-35s and F-16s in the region have reportedly had some encounters (shadowing each other). U.S. General Kenneth Wilsbach noted in 2022 that the F-35 had an encounter with J-20 and said “it was relatively professional,” suggesting the F-35 could track the J-20 and the pilots got a sense of each other newsweek.com. The fact that China developed a twin-seat J-20 variant (J-20S) unveiled in 2023 indicates they might use one seat for a weapons systems officer or teaming with drones youtube.com. The F-35 is single-seat only but highly automated. In summary, the J-20 is a serious platform – it gives China a long-range stealth fighter to challenge regional air dominance. But being newer, it’s still in development; worldwide consensus is that the F-35 (and F-22) currently retain an edge in stealth and sensor fusion over the J-20 idrw.org. The J-20 is likely faster with more range, similar in concept to an F-22, whereas the F-35 is a more mature multi-role “smart” fighter. Numbers-wise, China reportedly has at least 50 J-20s, possibly aiming for 200+, so it will be the F-35’s main peer competitor in the Pacific. The race between F-35 upgrades and J-20 improvements will be a defining element of air power balance in coming decades.

In comparing all these fighters, one must also consider training and integration. The F-35 is part of a highly networked force with AWACS, satellites, and skilled pilots from the U.S. and allies. As one analysis noted, “on paper, the Su-57 compares well… but it comes down to pilot skill. American aviators are better trained…and have more combat experience” 19fortyfive.com 19fortyfive.com. The F-22 and F-35 have flown real combat operations (albeit mostly ground strikes for the F-35, and some air patrols for the F-22 in Syria), whereas the Su-57 and J-20 have very limited or no actual combat engagements. Additionally, maintenance and sustainment matter – U.S. jets tend to have higher readiness (despite F-35’s issues, it’s improving) whereas Russian aircraft availability is questionable given sanctions and logistics, and Chinese jets are unproven in sustained high-tempo ops.

To put the capabilities side-by-side in a simplified way:

• Stealth: F-22 ≈ F-35 (both excellent, F-22 perhaps slightly better head-on); J-20 likely good front stealth but not as low overall; Su-57 notably less stealthy 19fortyfive.com 19fortyfive.com.
• Avionics & Sensors: F-35 has the most advanced fusion and pilot interface; F-22 has older but high-quality sensors (no 360° DAS though); J-20 and Su-57 have modern AESA/EO sensors but unclear fusion – likely behind the F-35.
• Air-to-Air Combat: F-22 best dogfighter (high agility, thrust, AIM-9X off-boresight added later), also high missile load; F-35 very capable BVR with stealth and AIM-120/AIM-260, adequate in WVR with HMDS + AIM-9X but less kinematic performance; J-20 built for BVR with long-range missiles and high speed, but WVR maneuvering probably average; Su-57 has extreme maneuverability and high speed, but its stealth deficit might get it killed BVR before it can use that agility.
• Strike Capability: F-35 is superior here – it can carry a wide array of guided bombs, perform SEAD missions, and sneak past defenses. F-22 has minimal strike (2 small bombs). Su-57 and J-20 can carry guided bombs and anti-ship missiles, but if they do externally, they lose stealth. F-35’s strike effectiveness is enhanced by its sensors mapping ground threats (e.g. SAR mapping, EO targeting) – unknown if Su-57/J-20 have equivalent ground targeting sophistication.
• Range/Endurance: Su-57 and J-20 both have larger frames and likely longer range than F-35 (F-22’s range is in between). F-35’s range is decent but not long compared to big twin-engine jets – it relies on tanker support for long hauls. J-20 in particular was designed to reach out in the Pacific but would still need tankers to go very far beyond China’s coast 19fortyfive.com.
• Multinational and Production: F-35 wins by sheer numbers and collective development. Over 3,000 likely to be made, integrated across many nations. F-22 capped at 187, no export. J-20 and Su-57 likely to be produced in a few hundreds at most, and only for their home countries (though Russia tries to export Su-57 – no takers yet, perhaps India in future if it revives interest). This means F-35 benefits from a huge logistics and upgrade ecosystem.

In real-world matchups, experts generally assess that F-35s working together (and with F-22s) would be extremely difficult for an adversary to counter, as they can see first and shoot first. An Su-57 or J-20 pilot might not even know an F-35 is in the area before an AMRAAM or Meteor missile is incoming. However, if rules of engagement or other factors force close encounters, then training and specific circumstances dictate outcomes.

It’s also worth noting sixth-generation developments: The U.S., China, and Russia are all working on next-gen fighters that by 2030s could surpass both F-35 and current rivals. The U.S. NGAD for the Air Force and F/A-XX for Navy are shrouded in secrecy but aim to ensure a qualitative edge beyond F-35. Until then, the F-35, alongside the F-22, remains the benchmark. As one 2025 review concluded: “My money is on the F-22 and F-35. They are more proven in combat… and American pilots are better. The Su-57 [and by extension J-20] has yet to prove it can match that.” 19fortyfive.com 19fortyfive.com. The F-35’s global presence and networked warfare approach arguably give it an advantage that goes beyond the platform itself – it’s part of a larger system-of-systems that China and Russia are racing to catch up with.

Future Outlook

The F-35 Lightning II is set to be the cornerstone of Western air power for decades to come, but the story is far from over. Looking ahead, several trends and plans shape the F-35’s future:

• Continued Production and Fleet Growth: The F-35 will continue rolling off assembly lines well into the 2030s. With new customers joining and existing ones expanding orders, production could sustain at 120+ jets per year through the late 2020s. Even by 2035, countries like the U.S. may be considering follow-on buys to replace older early-lot F-35s or equip additional squadrons. By around 2030, the F-35 fleet (all operators) is expected to exceed 1,500 jets, and by 2040 potentially around 3,000. The U.S. and allies plan to operate the F-35 into at least the 2070s en.wikipedia.org, so this is a program spanning half a century of service. Over that time, the jet delivered in 2035 will be far more advanced than those delivered in 2015, thanks to block upgrades.
• Full Spectrum Upgrade Path: As detailed, the Block 4 upgrades will be fielded through the end of this decade. Beyond that, Block 5 and 6 are on the drawing board. While specifics are not finalized, Lockheed and the JPO are analyzing future needs like advanced propulsion, signature improvements, new sensors, and possibly novel weapons. The F-35’s architecture allows for inserting technologies that emerge. For instance, if a revolutionary AI co-pilot or tactical AI is developed, the F-35 could integrate that via software to aid the human pilot in complex engagements. Given how rapidly drones and AI are advancing, the F-35 of 2040 might routinely operate with AI-driven wingmen or have onboard machine learning systems optimizing its sensors in real-time. Directed energy weapons (lasers or microwave systems) are another area – if miniaturization allows, an F-35 could one day carry a laser for point-defense (shooting down incoming missiles). In fact, the Pentagon has pondered a laser for the F-35’s Block 4, but it’s likely beyond current tech – more plausible in Block 5+ timeframe if power and cooling permit.
• Integration with Sixth-Gen Systems: The U.S. Next Generation Air Dominance (NGAD) fighter is expected to appear in the 2030s for the Air Force, and similar 6th-gen projects are underway (UK’s Tempest, Japan/Italy/UK GCAP, etc.). Rather than replacing the F-35 outright, these will likely operate alongside F-35s in a high-low mix. The Air Force envisions NGAD (a much more expensive, limited-production air superiority platform) teaming with F-35s, which will be the workhorse strike/fighter. In fact, budget shifts are already visible – the USAF cut a modest number of F-35s in its 2025–2026 budget plan to fund NGAD R&D airandspaceforces.com airandspaceforces.com. But they still plan on buying F-35s for years. The Navy similarly will use F-35Cs with its future F/A-XX concept. So the F-35 is expected to complement 6th-gen: for example, F-35s could perform stealth strikes to knock out enemy defenses, clearing the way for less stealthy drones or legacy assets, or feed targeting to an NGAD that carries ultra-long range weapons. The extensive fielding of F-35s will also act as a bridge – any sixth-gen system will be networked, and guess what network is already out there? Thousands of F-35s acting as sensors.
• Loyal Wingmen and Autonomy: As mentioned, one of the most exciting prospects is pairing F-35s with uncrewed combat drones. The Valkyrie test in 2024 19fortyfive.com was an early demonstration. By the 2030s, F-35 pilots could have one or more “Loyal Wingman” drones under their command on missions. These drones might carry extra missiles, perform forward sensing (flying ahead into dangerous airspace to map threats), or even act as decoys. The F-35’s communications and processing suite, especially after TR-3, should be capable of interfacing with such UAVs. The Skyborg program and others in the U.S. are making AI “brains” for drones – F-35 will surely be a key platform to control those. In contested airspace, an F-35 could send a drone to circle around a threat emitter and target it from a different angle, or have the drone clear out enemy fighters while the F-35 stays hidden. This concept essentially multiplies force without risking pilots. Both Russia and China claim their fighters (Su-57, J-20) will also have drone teaming, but the U.S. is heavily invested here.
• Evolving Role in Networked Warfare: The F-35 started as a strike fighter, but it’s increasingly valued as a “sensor node” and command unit in the network. Generals have called it a “flying sensor-computer that happens to shoot” to emphasize its C4ISR role. With enhancements like ABMS (Advanced Battle Management System) in USAF or JADC2, the F-35 will feed into multi-domain networks linking air, land, sea, space, cyber. For instance, an F-35 might detect a cruise missile launch and directly cue an Army air defense battery to intercept it – this kind of cross-domain integration is being tested. In future conflicts with peer adversaries, the F-35 will likely be central in finding and passing targeting data for not just air threats but also ships or ground targets, effectively functioning as part of an “combat cloud.” The data that F-35s gather could also be used to train AI and improve automation (e.g., using live sensor data to refine algorithms for threat identification).
• Operating Environment and Tactics: As adversaries develop better air defenses (like advanced S-400/500 or Chinese HQ-9B and HQ-22 SAMs, and future integrated networks with sensors like over-the-horizon radars), the F-35 will adapt its tactics. One future approach is a “stand-in” strategy: using F-35s to operate just inside denied zones, leveraging stealth to survive and relaying info back. Also, electronic warfare techniques will evolve – the F-35’s stealth may get complemented by advanced jamming (F-35’s EW system can already jam certain radar bands; improvements may broaden that). Additionally, the U.S. is looking to improve F-35’s own self-defense: for example, installing a DIRCM (Directed Infrared Countermeasure) laser to confuse heat-seeking missiles, or improved decoys. With the Block 4 EW upgrades, the F-35 is intended to be very hard to target even if detected.
• Lifecycle and Successor: The U.S. services currently plan to keep the F-35 in service into the 2070s en.wikipedia.org. Over that span, several cycles of mid-life upgrades and refurbishments will occur (like swapping out older avionics for newer ones around 2040, etc.). It’s expected that around the 2040s, discussions might start on a next-generation multi-role aircraft to eventually replace the F-35 (just as F-35 began development in 1990s to replace 1970s F-16). However, that’s a long way off and much will depend on how technology and threats progress. Given the sunk cost and the fact that many allies will still be flying F-35s, the U.S. will likely continue to double-down on keeping the F-35 formidable. One potential development: new variants or specialized versions. Thus far, there’s no formal plan for an “F-35D” or such, but it’s conceivable that after Block 4/5, a more distinct variant with further improved features might be proposed (similar to how the F-16 had multiple blocks and ultimately the F-16V with new radar, etc.). An example could be an F-35 variant with optional two-seat configuration for specialized missions (unlikely, but ideas have floated) or an expanded payload F-35 with conformal fuel tanks (to extend range without tanks that kill stealth). The current leadership seems more interested in new platforms rather than making an “F-35XL,” but if budgets constrain new projects, they might adapt existing ones.
• Export and Geopolitics: The F-35’s availability could influence global air force alignments. We might see additional countries joining – possibly Spain (for carrier use), India (if geopolitics align and they forego Russian ties, the U.S. might one day offer it, though currently India pursues domestic fighters), or other NATO expansions. If the Ukraine war changed Europe’s defense landscape, even countries like Ukraine or Poland’s neighbors in future might eventually field F-35s as part of Western integration. On the flip side, widespread F-35 use is triggering responses: Russia and China are likely to accelerate counter-stealth sensor development (like quantum radars or long-wave radars paired with AI). Electronic detection of F-35’s emissions (like its radar or datalinks) is another method adversaries will exploit. Thus, the F-35 will likely receive emission control upgrades (operate more passively, use LPI – low probability of intercept – sensors). The “cat-and-mouse” game between stealth and detection continues. The future F-35 will have to operate in contested environments with ubiquitous sensors and possibly enemy AI. But because it’s software-defined to a large extent, the platform can evolve tactics (for example, in a high-threat area, an F-35 might operate with radar off, relying on other offboard sensors to feed it targets via encrypted link – effectively acting like a silent sniper).

In conclusion, the F-35’s future is one of sustained dominance through adaptability. It has a large and growing user base committed to keeping it relevant. The ongoing Block 4/5 upgrades, engine improvements, and integration into next-gen networks and teaming concepts all ensure the Lightning II will remain a central asset. The headwinds it faces – cost pressures, new enemy capabilities, the emergence of 6th-gen competitors – are real, but the enterprise around the F-35 is vast and resourceful. The jet that was once derided as troubled is now proving its worth in service, and with each software update and hardware tweak, it becomes more lethal. Barring unexpected technological breakthroughs that render manned fighters obsolete (like some disruptive drone AI), the F-35 will fly and fight on as “the cornerstone of allied airpower” for the first half of the 21st century en.wikipedia.org. Future pilots will likely look back at the F-35 as we do at the F-16 today – a platform that started with controversy but matured into a legend through continuous improvement and the crucible of operational use.

Ultimately, the Lightning II’s legacy will depend on how it performs in the conflicts of the future. All indicators suggest it is well positioned to dominate the skies – invisibly, intelligently, and in concert with its wingmen, both human and robotic, for many years to come.

Sources: The information in this report is drawn from official defense publications, government reports, and reputable defense media. Key references include the U.S. GAO and DoD reports on F-35 costs and development gao.gov gao.gov, Congressional Research Service updates sgp.fas.org sgp.fas.org, statements from military officials and program executives airandspaceforces.com airandspaceforces.com, as well as data from Lockheed Martin and partner nation briefings f35.com f35.com. Combat usage and operational insights were corroborated by sources like DoD news releases and service statements (e.g. on the first USMC F-35B strike defense.gov, UK carrier strike group operations royalnavy.mod.uk, and Marine F-35C combat debut marinecorpstimes.com). Comparative assessments reference analyses by defense experts and publications (Air Force Magazine, Defense One, 19FortyFive) which evaluated the F-35 against foreign 5th-gen fighters 19fortyfive.com 19fortyfive.com. These sources collectively paint a comprehensive, up-to-date picture of the F-35’s status and trajectory as of 2025.