CATL unveiled the world’s first mass-produced sodium-ion EV battery, named Naxtra, in 2023 and began deploying it in cars by late 2023. Sodium-ion cells typically deliver 140–160 Wh/kg, with CATL’s best prototypes around 175 Wh/kg and a second-generation cell expected to exceed 200 Wh/kg. All-solid-state lithium batteries are projected to store 50% to 100% more energy than today’s Li-ion, with Toyota claiming a 20% initial range boost for its solid-state packs due in 2027–28. Solid-state designs could enable 600–1000+ miles per charge, according to industry projections and Toyota’s statements. Lithium-sulfur cells have a theoretical energy density of 600–800 Wh/kg, Fraunhofer’s